Morphological theory and English
Andrew S~encer L
Department of Language and Linguistics
University of Essex
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a review of a number of recent issues in the field of generative morphology,
with their implications for the description of English. After an introduction to the field two
types of question are considered. First, 1 examine the nature of word structure and illustrate two
competing approaches, one of which assurnes that words have a constituent structure (much like
the phrase structure of syntax) and the other of which rejects this assumption. Then we look at
the way morphologicai structure interacts with syntax. We examine the extent to which syntactic
principles can account for the behaviour of certain types of compounds and aiso the expression
of syntactic arguments in nominaiizations.
l. Introduction: morphology in generative grarnmar
This review will deal with a number of trends in recent morphological theory
as they affect our understanding of English morphology. Descriptions of
English morphology can be found in Adams (1973), Bauer (1983), Spencer
( for th~omina~n)d Szymanek (1989); Selkirk (1982) contains a good deal of
factual information, too. The standard descriptive source (with historical
information) is Marchand (1 969).
Morphology entered the domain of generative linguistics with Chomsky
(1 970), Halle (1 973), Siegel (1 979) and Aronoff (1 976). Morphology stands
at the interface between the lexicon, phonology and syntax, and many of the
most significant questions concern the way that morphological representations
interact with representations at other linguistic levels. At the same time,
important quest&ns have been raised aboutthe nature of morphological units
and morphological processes.Generative grammar seeks to provide an explicit,
formal theory of language structure. Originally this meant constructing sets of
rules, which are ultimately formalizable as mathematical expressions, but which
in practice are usually stated in a relatively informal notation. Such a set of rules
is a grammar, and this is held to underlie the native speaker's tacit (unconscious)
knowledge of hislher language. More recently, grammars have been viewed as
sets of principles and constraints on the well-formedness of linguistic expressions,
but the overall conception remains essentially the same.
It is very important that such a grammar provide a representation of al1 the
grammatical expressions of the language (i.e., sentences in the case of syntax,
72 Linls & Letters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer
words in the case of morphology) and fail to prove a representation of those
expressions not permitted in the language. We say that a grammar generates
the well-formed expression (i.e., correctly formed sentences or words).
There are three main aspects of word structure: (i) the phonological
structure of words and morphemes; (ii) the internal structuring of words, i.e.,
the way that component morphemes combine, and also the relationships that
hold between sets of morphologically related words; (iii) the relationship
between word structure and syntactic processes and representations.In this
review 1 shall be concerned with questions (ii) and (iii), basing myself on
phenomena in English which have been the subject of recent theoretical
discussion.
2. The internal structure of words
There have been two basic approaches to account for the structure of a word
such as untied. First, we can store individual morphemes un-, tie , -d, along
with their meanings or grammatical function, and then combine them to give
first [un + tie], then [[un + tie] + d]. On this conception a morpheme is
essentially like a morphologically simple (monomorphemic) word, stored in
the lexicon. This is basically the model proposed by Halle (1973), one of the
first explicit statements of generative morphology. The other conception is to
regard the verb stem un-tie as the result of a morphological operation of
prefixation performed on the root (or word) tie. The past tense is then formed
by virtue of another operation of -d suffixation. In this view it is the lexical
roots like tie which are stored in the lexicon, and the inflectional and derivational
morphemes are added by specifically morphological operations. This
model was first argued for by Aronoff (1976) (though he only discussed
derivation; Beard, 1987, proposes a model including inflection). Finally we
can adopt Halle's model for derivational morphology, but handle inflection in
something closer to Aronoff's way. An influential approach along these lines is
the model of inflection proposed by Anderson (1 982).
These competing views mean that one of the main controversies in generative
morphology is whether word structure should be thought of as like syntax,
and involving the successive concatenation of morphemes, the way that words
are concatenated to form sentences, or whether this analogy with syntax is
misleading. An important notion here is that of 'morpheme'. In structural
theories of morphology a word form such as cats consists of a root morpheme
cat and a plural morpheme -s. This sort of description is often referred to as an
Item-and-Arrangement model. However, we can also say that the abstract
lexeme CAT, which has the basic phonological shape /kat/, is modified by
addition of the -S plural marker. This sort of approach is often called the
Item-and-Process approach. For a simpleminded example such as this there
Morphological Theory and English Links & Letters 1, 1994 73
seems to be little difference between the two formulations. However, consider
an irregular plural form such as men. What is the plural morpheme in this word?
These types of cases are notoriously difficult for Item-and-Arrangement models,
but submit to description under an Item-and-Process view, where we can
simply say that there is an idiosyncratic pluralization process which involves
changing the vowel. This sort ofsituation lessens the vaiue of the whole concept
of 'morpheme'.
Aronoff (1 976) argued further against the morpheme concept. He pointed
out that many morphological processes seem to apply to words rather than to
morphemes. A survey of these issues can be found in Scaiise (1 984) and Spencer
(199 1). One of the points Aronoff makes is that it is not always possible to take
the morpheme as a sign, that is, as a unit of meaning. Sometimes, we must
recognize meaningless morphemes which nonetheless combine to form meaningful
words. The prime example of this is a fairly large class of verbs in English
of latinate origin consisting of a prefm and stem of the type commit, receive,
import, detain. It seems clear that these are prefixed since the same prefixes, con-,
re-, in-, de-, per-, pro-, ex-, mns- and so on recur. At the same time, a small
number of recurrent stems can be identified, including -mit, -ceive, -port, -tain,
-fer, -late, -duce, -mote. However, it is impossible to provide a unitary meaning,
or even collection of meanings, either for the stems or the prefixes'. Yet a word
such as transmit or collate has a definite meaning. Aronoff argues that these
latinate stems are morphemes rather than just meaningless morphs on the
grounds that they undergo distinctive ailomorphy. Thus, from -ceive we form
adjectives such as receptive, deceptive, perceptive, and nominaiizations such as
reception, deception, perception. Here it is clear that there is a distinct allomorph,
-cept, for these formations.Now,the only thing which can exhibit allomorphy
is a morpheme,ergo stems such as-ceive are morphemes,albeit meaningless ones.
These and related arguments lead to the conclusion that we should regard
at least certain types of morphological structure as the result of processes which
stems undergo, rather than as 'things' (i.e., morphemes, which have a separate
meaning and which are concatenated to form expressions with a complex
derived meaning). This approach to derivationai morphology is reminiscent of
the 'Word-and-Paradigm' approach to inflection. In this approach inflectionai
formatives are not lexical entries (i.e., not morphemes) but are realizations or
exponents of sets of morphosyntactic or morpholexicai features. This is motivated
by two types of phenomenon, cumulation and extended (and overlapping)
exponence.
Cumulation occurs when a single formative signals more than one grammatical
property or 'meaning'. For instance, in the Catalan verb form porta 'he
1. These are different from so-cded Cranberry morphs' such as the meaningless element cran- in
cranberry. They recur in a whole series ofwords and have a definable morphological properties, just
like bona fide morphemes.
74 Links & Letters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer carries, is carrying', the desinence -a realizes ('is an exponent of') not just 3sg
subject, but also tells us that the verb is indicative mood (cf. pres. subj. port-i
and imperf. subj. port-és-0, with a zero agreement marker), and present tense
(ct. port-ava, port-á, port-ar-á). Moreover, this desinence can be regarded as
coding the fact that the verb is 1st conjugation (cf. perd tem, sent, serveix).
Extended exponence refers to the fact that a single meaning or grammatical
property can be signalled simultaneously by several different formatives in the
word form. For instance, in the conditional form portaria we have an ending
which under other circumstances would be the- imperfect indicative of a
2ndI3rd conjugation verb. However, in conjunction with the future stem
port-ar (itself related to the infinitive) the -ia ending signals conditional mood.
Thus, we can't say that there is a morpheme -ia with the meaning 'conditional',
nor can we say that there is a suffix -ar with this meaning. However, together
the two formatives do indeed express the property 'conditional'.
Considerations such as these have led morphologists such as Anderson
(1982) to abandon the morpheme concept altogether (especially for inflectional
morphology). Anderson argues instead that we must assume that the grammar
takes a word stem together with an abstract description of the inflectional form.
We must then construct a set of rules to generate the word form corresponding
to that inflectional description.
To give a very simple example we might have a rule for English saying that
a verb marked [3sg present indicative] has a suffix /z/ attached to it. Hence, the
stem untie will become untie-s. In the case of irregular forms a special rule has
to be written for each word (e.g. sing [past tense] - sang (ablaut)).
Diametrically opposed to this type of approach are what we might cal1 the
Word Syntax approaches, which retain Halle's (1973) assumption that morphemes
are lexical entries. In these approaches (e.g. Lieber, 198 1, Selkirk, 1982,
Di Sciullo and Williams, 1987) a word has a constituent structure, similar in
kind to the constituent structure of a sentence. Such a structure can be
represented by familiar tree diagrams. (They can also be generated by a phrase
structure grammar.) An example would be (l), a representation of the word
indeciphera bility:
Noun
in de cipher abil i'7
Each morpheme has its own grammatical category. We can imagine such a
tree being constructed from the root cipher outwards to give [de+cipher],
[[de+cipher] +able], etc. Each added affm defines the category of the resulting
word, and for this reason is regarded as the head of the word. Because of the
resemblance to syntactic struckres such an approach is often referred to as
Word Syntax.
This approach is also supposed to apply to inflected forms. For instance,
the representation for cats will be (2):
(2) Noun, pl.
cat S
Here the plural suffix is the head of the word and thus characterizes the
whole word as a plural form. Technically, the label pl.' in (2) is a morphosyntactic
feature, and the noun cats is said to inherit this feature by a process of
percolation. Feature percolation is supposed to take place just from heads. If
we regard grammatical category labels like 'Noun', 'Adj.' as features of morphemes,
then we can say that the way that -able in decipherable characterizes
the whole word as an adjecive is parallel to the way that -S defines cats as a plural
noun. This can be seen in (3), where percolation is shown by an arrow:
(3) (a) (b)
Adj
N
I I
de cipher able However, with inflection there is already a problem. Inflections do not
change grammatical category, so the fact that cats is a noun is a property of the
stem cat, not of the plural suffix. But this suggests that a feature ('N') has come
from a non-head, cat, rather than the head. A slightly more complete example
from Catalan makes this more obvious:
cat S
76 Links & Letters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer
(4) v
indic
im p f
indic
impf
V impf
I
port av a
The sufix -avis the head ofthe stemportav-, and this stem therefore inherits
the tense Imood Iaspect features of the suffix by percolation. However, after
suffixation of -a, the stem is the non-head. The only way for the word as a whole
to be marked as imperfect indicative, therefore, is for these features to percolate
from the non-head.
A different problem for the notion of constituent structure in words
concerns the noiion of adjacency (cf. Siegel, 1977) in morphology, a specific
example of a locality effect in grammar. To understand this notion, consider
the case of nominalizations of verbs formed by suffixation of -ize, to give
-izdtion. Now, -ize attaches to certain classes of adjectives and aiso to a smailer
number of nouns, as in industrial-ize, regular-ize as opposed to motor-ize,
hospital-ize. Other things being equai, it would theoretically be possible for the
nominaiization rule to be sensitive to this distinction, so that, say, -ation only
suffixed to deadjectival -ize verbs. In other words, the -ation rule would be able
to see the boxed part of the structures of reguhrize and hospitalize as in (5), and
fail to apply where the boxed section is not an adjective:
1- regular 1 ize 1 hospitai 1 ize
It is an intriguing fact about morphological processes that in general they
are unable to make this kind of distinction (see Raffelsiefen, 1992, for a
reanaiysis of putative counterexamples). A number of authors propose principies
to prevent such reference (e.g. Siegel, 1977, Williams, 198 1). However,
Morphological Theory and English Links & Letters 1, 1994 77
this is unsatisfactory. Why build an elaborate tree structure only to impose a
restriction preventing any of it from being accessible?
Another set of problems besetting theories of morphology relying on
constituent structure is that known as 'bracketing paradoxes'. A bracketing
paradox arises when a morphologicai construction seems to require one constituent
structure anaiysis at one leve1 and a different anaiysis at a different level.
A familiar example (though still controversiai; see, e.g., Sproat, 1992) is that
of the word unhappier (Pesetsky, 1985). The comparative -er suffix only attaches
to a stem if the resulting word forms a single stress foot (i.e., if it has no
secondary stresses). In practice, this means single syllables or disyllabic stems v .
ending ih syllabic conionants or -i Phonologically, then, we Would expect
unhappier to have the structure of (ha):
Here, -er has attached to happy, which is permitted (hence we have happier).
Then, we prefix un-. However, when we look at the semantics, we see that
unhappier means 'more unhappy'. This means that the comparative morpheme
takes the negative morpheme in its scope. This implies the structure (6b):
These are incompatible, hence the 'paradox'.
There are, in fact, a good many types of construction where this kind of
anomaly arises, and there is no reason to believe they are al1 of the same kind,
and should be anaiysed in the same way. Indeed, one class of bracketing
paradoxes seems to be the result of a special type of word formation process in
English. This is the type illustrated by the expression transformationalpmmarian.
Though this can (facetiously) be interpreted to mean 'a grammarian who is
transformationai', the normal interpretation is 'speciaiist in transformational
grammar'. On this reading, we obtain a morphological constituent structure in
(7a) which is at variance with the phonological bracketing of the phrase, (7b):
(7) a. [[transformational grammar] ian]
b. [transformational [grammar ian]]
The justification for (7a) is that -jan means (roughly) 'speciaiist in ...', and hence
modifies the entire phrase mnsformational grammax
In Spencer ( 1 988; cf. also Spencer, 199 1, ch. 10, Carstairs-McCarthy, 1992:
92-97; and see Beard, 199 1, for a different analysis) 1 point out that this example
represents a widespread feature of English in that we can form expressions
meaning 'person who doeslis associated with X' for a great variety of types of
X, more or less independently of the morphological structure of X. Moreover,
78 Links & Letters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer
this process (of 'personal noun formation') engenders a more drastic type of
problem. Consider the following cases:
(8) a. moral philosopher
b. baroque flautist
c. electrical engineer
monumental mason
historical linguist
East German
The problem with the exarnples in (8) is that their sources (in (9)) seem to be
morphologically inappropriate in various ways.
(9) a. moral philosophy
b. baroque flute
c. electrical engineering
monumental masonery
historical linguistics
East Germany
Yet we cannot argue that the examples of (9) are derived from those of (8)
morphologically, because the specialist meaning found with (8) is obviously
derived from the specialist meanings associated with (9), not vice versa. In (8a)
we see a case where an a%x -y is replaced by -er, and in (8b) the stem undergoes
drastic allomorphy. The most telling examples are those of (8c), where we seem
to have lost an affix in the course of the derivation. Clearly, these cases show
that we don't even have a paradoxical bracketing: no sensible constituent
structure of any kind can be given to these examples.
The solution 1 advocate is to say that there is a process of personal noun
formation which is independent of the morphological processes which realize
it. In this respect, we can liken personal noun formation to plural formation:
(more or less) every noun in English can have a plural, even though the plural
morphology varies considerably. This is effectively to say that there is a
separation of the abstract morphological process from the various morphological
operations which might give rise to it. In fact, the way such expressions
are constructed turns out to depend on the contents of the lexicon of English.
We can form a personal noun in just those cases where the head noun in its
unmodified form has some sort of personal form. For instance, corresponding
to linguistics we have linguist. Therefore, when we form an expression theoretical
linguistics and store this as a set phrase in the lexicon, this licenses the
construction of the personal noun based on its head, viz. theoretical linguist.
This can be thought of as a type of productive analogical formation, as
diagrammed in (10):
Morphological Theory and English Links & Letters 1, 1994 79
linguistics linguist
This is only possible, however, when the three licensin-g ex-p ressions are
lexicalized. If ké try to construct a personal noun from a straightfonvard
syntactic phrase, such as 'difficult linguistics' we are unable to form a personal
noun. Hence, dzficult linguist cannot possibly mean 'one who specializes in
difficult linguistics', nor can wooden jkzutist mean 'one who plays a wooden
flute'. This is because the positions in diagram (10) corresponding to that of
theoretical linguistics is missing for these cases.
This type of phenomenon constitutes a case ofword formation (derivation)
which is based on the lexicon, and can be regarded as a type of paradigmatic
word formation. This means that we no longer associate a specific meaning
with a specific affixal morpheme and compute the meaning of the whole word
as a combination of the meaning of the stem plus that of the affix. Instead, we
assume an abstract derivationprocess (personal noun formation) and a relatively
complex set of morphological operations which realize this process. These
operations are defined in part by the idiosyncratic properties of lexical items.
In this regard, we analyze the personal noun formation process in much the
same way that inflectional processes are analyzed in a Word-and-Paradigm
model. The approach is essentially the same as van Marle's (1985) analysis of
feminine noun formation in Dutch, and it also owes a good deai to BeardS
Separation Hypothesis.' Carstairs-McCarthy (1992) and Spencer (1991) discuss
further possible cases of this kind.
3. The morphology-syntax interface
Having investigated the extent to which the internai structure of a word reflects
the internai structure of a sentence we can now turn to the way that a word's
structure can affect its syntactic properties. This is a particularly lively and
contentious area of current research.
A question from the morphology-syntax interface which has aroused considerable
interest in the theoretical literature concerns the way that the argument
structure of a verbal stem can be satisfied in and outside of compounds.
Argument structure (valency) refers to the types of subjects and complements
a predicate can take. Thus, intransitive (sleep), monotransitive (hit), and ditran-
2. Sturnp (1991) presents sorne interesting criticisrns of this treatrnent of personal nouns.
80 Linls & Let ters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer
sitive @ve) verbs each have a different argument structure. English represents
a particularl~ intriguing example of this problem in the form of synthetic
compounds.
It has become customary to distinguish two main types of compound in
English. In root or primary compounds we simply compose one word with
another, the meaning of the resulting expression usually being determined by
the pragmatics of the situation (in the case of nonce forms, cf. Downing, 1977)
or conventionally in the case of lexicalized compounds. Such compounds are
generally headed structures (endocentric), the head being either a noun or
adjective, modified by a noun, adjective or preposition-like element, as in (1 1):
(1 1) a. N N: houseboat, boathouse
b. A N: blackbird, postal order
c. N A: canary yellow, ice cold
d. A A: dark blue, icy cold
e. P N bypass, in crowd
The second type of compound is referred to as a synthetic (deverbal)
compound. Its distinguishing feature is that the head is a noun or adjective
derived from a verb stem. Some typical examples discussed in the literature are
shown in (12):
(12) a. truck driver
b. truck driving, motorway maintenance
c. handmade, pan fried
The chief interest of these constructions is the claim that the modifier
satisfies the argument structure of the verb stem. Thus, in truck driver, truck is
said to function, effectively, as the direct object of drive. Thus, (12a) is
comparable to (13a) and also to (13b):
(13) a. to drive a truck
b. a driver of trucks
Interestingly, there is some disagreement arnong native speakers as to how
these are interpreted. For Lieber (1983), for example, (12a) is ambiguous, in
that it can either be a s~nthetico mpound corresponding in meaning to (13b),
or it can be root compound with truck having just a general modi$ing function
interpreted pragmatically (say, with the meaning 'the (taxi) driver who comes
to work in a truck'). However, such a root interpretation only seems possible
when the verb stem itself can easily be interpreted as an intransitive verb. When
the verb is more or less obligatorily transitive, then the modifier has to function
as its direct object. Thus, in Selkirk's (1982) example (14a), tree must be the
Morphological Theory and English Links & Letters 1, 1994 81
object of devour, and it is therefore impossible to have a direct object (such as
pasta) expressed as a PP complement to the deverbal noun, as in (14b):
(14) a. tree devourer
b. *tree devourer of pasta
In particular, (14a, b) could not be given an interpretation 'one who devours
(pasta) in trees'.
Various attempts have been made to explain this pattern of data (recent
summaries can be found in Spencer, 199 1, ch. 8 and Carstairs-McCarthy, 1992,
ch. 4). Some of the more interesting ones claim that general syntactic principles
apply inside such compounds. Thus, there is a general principle (in Government-
Binding theory this is the Theta Criterion, together with the Projection
Principle) which accounts for the ungrammaticaiity of (1 5), in which our
transitive verb lacks an object:
(1 5) *Tom devoured.
The claim is that exactly the same set of principles will account for the
ungrammaticality of (l4b). We simply need to assume that some sort oflocality
principle governs the assignment of the direct object argument position, in
order to guarantee that it is satisfied by the item 'closest' to the ~ e r b . ~
The controversy surrounding synthetic compounds is beset by empirical
difficulties, however, in that it is not obvious that cases such as (14b) are really
ungrammatical, as opposed to very unusual (cf. Carstairs-McCarthy, 1992:
1 18). Of potentially greater theoretical significance is the existence of phrases
such as (13b), or nominalizations such as (16):
(16) a. the building of the pyramids by the Egyptians
b. the construction of pyramids by Egyptians
The questions here are (i) under what circumstances can the argument
structure of theverbal stem be satisfied by of- or by-complements in this fashion?
and (ii) by what mechanism can the derived nominal 'inherit' the argument
structure of its verbal stem?
A recent set of answers to these questions suggests that the aspectual category
of the nominalization is important, so that a processual nominal (i.e. with the
meaning 'the process of ved-ing) will license, and indeed require the argument
3. One posible approach would be to regard synthetic compounds as effectively the result of noun
incorporation comparable to that found with finite verbal heads in languages such as Mohawk or
Eskimo, as described by Baker (1988). This is explicitly argued for by Roeper (1988), though it
seems to me that his proposals are somewhat problematic. Baker himself distantes himself from
such a suggestion.
82 Links & Letters 1, 1994 Andrew Spencer
structure of the verb to be satisfied (Grimshaw, 1990). Thus, many -ing
nominalizations of transitive verbs seem to require an object:
(17) They witnessed the devouring *(of the pasta).
On the other hand, if the nominalization expresses a result or state, then
the possibilities are more restricted, and in general the subject4 of the verb must
remain unexpressed. Thus, in (1 8) we have a result nominalization, as seen from
the fact that it is in the plural. This is unable to cooccur with a by-phrase
expressing its underlying subject:
(18) a.*the constructions of the pyramids by the Egyptians
On the contrary, ifwe wish to refer to those who did the constructing with
such a result nominal we have to do so indirectly, by means of a possessive-like
construction with an of-phrase:
(19) the constructions of the Egyptians
To a certain extent this kind of variation is found with agentive nominalizations.
While -er nominalizations such as driver permit the object to be
expressed as an of-phrase, this is not so, generally speaking, if the noun is not
derived by affixation, but by conversion. Witness the contrast in (20) (despite
the existence of the lexicalized compound, pastry cook!):
(20) a. a baker of delicious pastries
b.*a cook of delicious pastries
Likewise, not al1 suffixes permit the argument structure to be inherited. A
neat minimal pair here (due to Randall, 1984) is the wordphotographer. With
the stress phótographer, this is interpreted as regularly derived by suffixation of
-er to the verbphotogaph, much like driver. However, with the stressphotógapher
it is interpreted more as a simple noun which fails to inherit its stem's
argument structure. Hence we obtain the judgements in (21):
(21) a. a phótographer of exotic birds
b. *a photógrapher of exotic birds
It remains an open question whether such questions are to be resolved by
appealing to syntactic principles operating in word formation processes, or
whether we assume that the lexical representations of such derived forms are
4. More technicaiiy, the externalargument.
Morphological Theory and English Links & Letters 1, 1994 83
so structured as to interact with syntactic (and possibly semantic) principles so
as to give the desired results.
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